The eNotes Blog How to UseSemicolons

How to UseSemicolons This is part three  in our original grammar series. Semicolons, or, in the words of Kurt Vonnegut, â€Å"transvestite hermaphrodites representing absolutely nothing,† have been given a bad name. You and Kurt may avoid them if you choose. If, however, you’ll open your hearts to the tiny mutants, I think you’ll find they’re really rather â€Å"useful little chaps†- in the words of Abraham Lincoln. Think you know how to use a semicolon? Take this test and find out. Choose the correctly punctuated sentence. 1. A. If this segment on semicolons is about porcupines; I’m not reading it. B. The author wouldn’t write about porcupines again, people would get bored. C. She did forget to mention the adorable word for a baby porcupine, though; porcupette. D. But that’s the last thing she’ll say on the subject; she is moving on. 2. A. Writing these tests looks fun; easy; and simple. B.  Writing these tests is actually hellishly, distressingly difficult; drains you of your will to live, ruins your morning; noon, afternoon, and night; and leaves you wondering when dinner is. C. Writers struggle against the following: overstatement; hyperbole; lack of snacks. D. Writers continue thanks to their remarkable ability to persevere in the face of hunger, fluorescent lights, and doubt; the encouragement of their coworkers, who are unfailingly kind; the fluffy dog, whose name is Ellie, at their feet; and the pretzels they forgot were in their pocket. 3. A.  The editorial team thinks that Ellie’s fluffy mane should be dyed pink, however, they are not sure her owner would like that. B.  The editorial team decided that discretion was the better part of valor, accordingly, they decided to just imagine Ellie with a pink mohawk. C.  The imaginary Ellie looked very cute with a pink mohawk, hence, there was renewed debate. D.  It is sometimes better to ask forgiveness than permission; however, sometimes it is better to ask permission. Answers: 1.d 2.d 3.d After some (clearly expert) Photoshopping, its a unanimous yay for Ellie  getting a pink mohawk. 1. Semicolons are still not commas The comma at the bottom of a semicolon is not an all-access pass to the comma party; it is a sometimes-maybe pass. Think of it like the Avengers. Though Bruce Banner can sometimes do Iron Man’s job, there are instances where the two really aren’t interchangeable and shouldn’t be confused. The primary place a semicolon should go is between two independent clauses that don’t have a conjunction (e.g. and, but, etc.), though on occasion it’s okay to leave in the conjunction. For example, you could write I was confused about which of the handsome scientists turned into an uncontrollable green monster; I decided to find out by means of trial and error. You would be perfectly justified in replacing the semicolon with a period or an em dash- but you can’t replace it with a comma. The good news is that the semicolon is a useful tool to fix your comma splices. A comma splice occurs when you connect two independent clauses without a conjunction, like this: My scientific experiment proved successful, it also destroyed New York City. Pop a semicolon in and poof! No more comma splice. Also no more city. 2. Semicolons are not colons As with commas and scientist Avengers, semicolons and colons are occasionally interchangeable. The colon, however, is really more like Hawkeye: a one-trick pony whose usefulness is limited to only a handful of occasions. Unlike a semicolon, which doesn’t specify the nature of the relationship of the two independent clauses you are connecting, a colon indicates that the second clause is an example of, directly explains, or emphasizes the point of the first clause. For example, you could use either a semicolon or a colon in the sentence Hawkeye’s inclusion among the Avengers is perplexing: he seems a mortal among gods. One should not, however tempted, write Hawkeye’s inclusion among the Avengers is perplexing: he does, however, have nice arms. When in doubt, try replacing a colon with the words â€Å"that is,† â€Å"specifically,† or â€Å"namely.† If your new construction makes sense, there’s a good chance you can go with a colon. If not, consider opting for a more multipurpose warrior: the semicolon. 3. Semicolons and lists One place a semicolon can’t go is before a list. Only a colon will do in I think my chances are good with the following Avengers: Thor, Captain America, and Iron Man. There is, however, a use for a semicolon when the internal punctuation of a series gets painfully complicated, perhaps as in I can’t believe you don’t think I could date the following Avengers: Thor, the Norse God, Captain America, the hero of WWII, and Iron Man, the billionaire playboy superhero. Resolve confusion with semicolons, as in Okay, I realize I might have been a little ambitious in thinking I could date the following Avengers: Thor, the Norse God; Captain America, the hero of WWII; and Iron Man, the billionaire playboy superhero. 4. I still don’t get why I would ever use a semicolon You could use a semicolon to join two independent clauses (things that could function as full sentences on their own). A semicolon indicates a closer relationship between the ideas than a period would. For example, I could write Thor is the best Avenger. He is really attractive. He also has courage and fortitude of mind. With a period between all those ideas, I might simply be throwing out unrelated thoughts that occur to me about Thor. I could also write Thor is the best Avenger; he is really attractive. He also has courage and moral fortitude. But if I did that I’d be betraying the fact that I’ve based my assessment of his superiority primarily on his remarkable physical qualities, and the moral fortitude is really an afterthought. The only other proper use for a semicolon is helping you sort out a list with crazy internal punctuation, like I argue that Thor is better than Captain America because he is, quite frankly, musclier; experiences- unlike his morally uninteresting counterpart- the occasional conflict of the soul; and wears a cape and shiny armor, but no silly-looking helmet with a chin strap. 5. Do I ever have to use a semicolon? No. There are only a handful of places where the way you’ve constructed your sentence demands that you use a semicolon, and you can usually rewrite to avoid them without too much difficulty (though your life will be emptier for it). If you are determined to persist in your crusade against the semicolon, then here’s a list of constructions you must also avoid. You can’t use transitional adverbs to join two independent clauses. (Yes, you say, this sounds like a real tragedy.) Let me clarify. You can’t write Thor, Captain America, and Iron Man decided to take a break and enjoy the Avengers hot tub, however, there was a shortage of towels. (See? It would be tragic if you couldn’t say that.) The comma is incorrect. Instead, you must write either They decided to enjoy the Avengers hot tub; however, there was a shortage of towels or They decided to enjoy the Avengers hot tub. However, there was a shortage of towels. You have to rewrite lists to exclude internal punctuation, which means you can’t fit in any of those charming asides you wanted, and sentences like the comparison of Captain America and Thor above become boring constructions like I guess Thor is maybe better than Captain America because he is bigger, sort of complicated, and doesn’t wear a hat.

buy custom Development of Academic Audience essay

buy custom Development of Academic Audience essay This is an exploratory essay on how academic audiences develop. In a learning environment it is essential for the students to enhance their audience development throughout the learning processes. The tone and styles on how the students need to develop their audience skills differ on the mode of study. There is class based training and online courses / distance learning which the students are meant to read the learning materials from the website or they are set to them as printed instructions. The main aim objectives of developing the audience of the students are to broaden participation. Unlike other type of audience which is one way means of communication as in a conference. The students are encouraged to participate by asking questions and clarifications in areas which they did not understand and they also contribute in to the training which makes them understand even better. The other reason is to increase concentration as they are being taught and such increase on concentrations would make be able to grasp more. For online coursesthe materials which are placed online should be well organized and easy to be accessed by the students and other resource people in the academic fraternity to encourage them to read through. Audience participations could be done by having weekly discussions based on the materials which are meant to be read that week. With such participations there will be enough audience development. Diversification of participation is another form of audience development in which the audience will be required to change point of view on how they listen to what they are being taught such could be achieved through changing the point of view and involve the audience in group discussions. Groups improve on development of audience as those who are shy to participate when in class they can make their contributions when they are in smaller group. Buy custom Development of Academic Audience essay

Stagnation in India (1965 To 1980) Was Due To Sharp Reductions in Essay

Stagnation in India (1965 To 1980) Was Due To Sharp Reductions in Public Investments in the Mid-1960s - Essay Example The period of mid-1960s as well as early 1970s has been found to be facing numerous economic problems. The reasons behind such problems stemmed from the fact that since India faced wars with its neighboring countries, huge amount of resources were spend towards defense which reduced the amount of public investment, thus significantly affecting the growth of India. The other reason behind the stagnation was the issues related to foreign exchange situation that forced the country to devalue its currency in the year 1966. The production of the food was insufficient because of the rising demand and therefore it became necessary for India to import the food items from other countries (FAO, â€Å"India†). It was observed that there was decline in the growth rate of public investment which can be identified as one of the significant factors in the decline of the industrial growth rate after the mid-1960s. The paper tries to identify the state of economy of India during the period of 1965-1980. It will review the impacts of low public investment in the mid-1960s on India and the steps taken by the political leaders to combat the problems (Sridharan, E., â€Å"The Political Economy Of Industrial Promotion: Indian, Brazilian, And Korean Electronics In Comparative Perspective 1969-1994†). Indian Economy since Independence and During the Period of Stagnation The main question that arises is related to the performance of India since 1947, the year of its independence. It has been believed that the economy of India was stuck from the times of independence; during that period ‘Hindu rate of growth’ was nearly 3.5% per annum. The period of seventies was commonly referred to as ‘Hindu rate of growth period’. It was revealed that the reason behind the decline in the gross domestic product (GDP) growth during the period of sixties have been due to sharp decline in the growth of agriculture from the middle of sixties. After Green Revolution was introduced, there were important changes in the growth possibility of agriculture. During the period of 1965-1980, the policies were generated as a result of immediate crisis in the economy of India as well as political suitability rather than by economic logic. It has been observed that this period saw disconnectedness in the policies and the procedures of the government. It was found that various strategies adopted by the country for the purpose of the development of the nation failed miserably before the reforms of the nineties. The three components such as too much controls and inward-looking policies as well as substantial and inefficient public sector suppressed the growth during the seventies and to a certain extent in the eighties as well (Virmani, â€Å"India’s Economic Growth: From Socialist Rate of Growth to Bharatiya Rate of Growth†). The decline in the growth rate of industries in the economy of India during the sixties has been characterized as provis ional downward deviation in relation to trend. However, in the present times, the scenarios are being reflected as long-run tendencies leading to stagnation

Sensor Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sensor - Research Paper Example The feedback system is designed so well that it updates the status of input torque in fraction of a second and as a result exoskeleton keeps working accordingly; and works well with frequent torque changes. A heel pressure sensor is required that produces an electrical signal whenever heel touches the ground or force is sensed on the heels because of its interaction with the ground. Signal from this sensor helps in regulating the sequential movement of the exoskeleton. These force sensors are usually generated by making use of a couple of force sensors but in our design use of a simple piezoelectric or capacitive device works well as a heel sensor and is placed on the heel of the exoskeleton design on the side that is directly in touch with the ground. In order to accurately track the force applied by the user to the legs on the exoskeleton distributed force sensors will be used. These sensors help in measuring distributed forces being applied by the human body over a specified area rather than collective force applied to the entire leg. This approach of distributed force helps to track the applied force at any given point on the leg during the gait to check for proper rehabilitation of the leg. Sensors placed under each heel will sense whether the foot is in contact with the ground, signaling to the leg that the motion should come back to a standing phase. Myographic Sensors Electro-Myographic sensors are used to directly measure the electrical activity of human muscles. In case of exoskeleton, myographic sensors can be placed on the belly of muscle. In this case, electrical activity of human muscles is directly translated to force that is being exerted by the leg onto the exoskeleton, by measuring the amplitude of the force. There is a limitation in using EMG technique in the design of lower limb exoskeleton. If EMG is incorporated in the design of exoskeleton then wearing this device would not remain convenient for the patients as electro-myographic sensors need direct interface to the skin. This can be avoided by making use of acoustic myographic techniques. In short these sensors are used to keep record of the current muscular activity of the lower limb and helps in detecting whether or not the lower limb is capable of recovering to its original state. Other than that these sensors can also be incorporated to replace strain gauges that are being used in our design to measure the force being applied by the leg on the exoskeleton. This can be done by simply applying acoustic sensors between the knee and ankle of the human leg and the resulting signals can be transformed into energy magnitude. From this force being exerted on the lower limb can be determined easily. Acoustic sensors are not able to provide direct signal to the control system as the signal is too low when observed in terms of voltage. Therefore, we need pre-processing circuitry to reduce hardware induced noise as well as improve signal quality. BU-7135 is an acceleromete r based acoustic myographic sensor. It is covered with a silicon case and accelerometer is placed within this cover. It is then protected by a layer of PCB and air chamber is also provided before having contact either the skin through silicone membrane. Here is the detailed diagram showing the internal structure of the device. The AMG sensor is not used individually within the circuit, rather pre-amplification circuit is provided along the sensor to get better signal. Here is the design of

Types of Sampling Essay Example for Free

Types of Sampling Essay * How do we decide which to use? * How do we analyze the results differently depending on the type of sampling? Non-probability Sampling: Why dont we use non-probability sampling schemes? Two reasons: * We cant use the mathematics of probability to analyze the results. * In general, we cant count on a non-probability sampling scheme to produce representative samples. In mathematical statistics books (for courses that assume you have already taken a probability course): * Described as assumptions about random variables * Sampling with replacement versus sampling without replacement What are the main types of sampling and how is each done? Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is produced by a scheme which ensures that each subgroup of the population of size n has an equal probability of being chosen as the sample. Stratified Random Sampling: Divide the population into strata. There can be any number of these. Then choose a simple random sample from each stratum. Combine those into the overall sample. That is a stratified random sample. (Example: Church A has 600 women and 400 women as members. One way to get a stratified random sample of size 30 is to take a SRS of 18 women from the 600 women and another SRS of 12 men from the 400 men.) Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and scattered for it to be practical to make a list of the entire population from which to draw a SRS. For instance, when the a polling organization samples US voters, they do not do a SRS. Since voter lists are compiled by counties, they might first do a sample of the counties and then sample within the selected counties. This illustrates two stages. In some instances, they might use even more stages. At each stage, they might do a stratified random sample on sex, race, income level, or any other useful variable on which they could get information before sampling. How does one decide which type of sampling to use? The formulas in almost all statistics books assume simple random sampling. Unless you are willing to learn the more complex techniques to analyze the data after it is collected, it is appropriate to use simple random sampling. To learn the appropriate formulas for the more complex sampling schemes, look for a book or course on sampling. Stratified random sampling gives more precise information than simple random sampling for a given sample size. So, if information on all members of the population is available that divides them into strata that seem relevant, stratified sampling will usually be used. If the population is large and enough resources are available, usually one will use multi-stage sampling. In such situations, usually stratified sampling will be done at some stages. How do we analyze the results differently depending on the different type of sampling? The main difference is in the computation of the estimates of the variance (or standard deviation). An excellent book for self-study is A Sampler on Sampling, by Williams, Wiley. In this, you see a rather small population and then a complete derivation and description of the sampling distribution of the sample mean for a particular small sample size. I believe that is accessible for any student who has had an upper-division mathematical statistics course and for some strong students who have had a freshman introductory statistics course. A very simple statement of the conclusion is that the variance of the estimator is smaller if it came from a stratified random sample than from simple random sample of the same size. Since small variance means more precise information from the sample, we see that this is consistent with stratified random sampling giving better estimators for a given sample size. Return to the top. Non-probability sampling schemes These include voluntary response sampling, judgement sampling, convenience sampling, and maybe others. In the early part of the 20th century, many important samples were done that werent based on probability sampling schemes. They led to some memorable mistakes. Look in an introductory statistics text at the discussion of sampling for some interesting examples. The introductory statistics books I usually teach from are Basic Practice of Statistics by David Moore, Freeman, and Introduction to the Practice of  Statistics by Moore and McCabe, also from Freeman. A particularly good book for a discussion of the problems of non-probability sampling is Statistics by Freedman, Pisani, and Purves. The detail is fascinating. Or, ask a statistics teacher to lunch and have them tell you the stories they tell in class. Most of us like to talk about these! Someday when I have time, maybe Ill write some of them here. Mathematically, the important thing to recognize is that the discipline of statistics is based on the mathematics of probability. Thats about random variables. All of our formulas in statistics are based on probabilities in sampling distributions of estimators. To create a sampling distribution of an estimator for a sample size of 30, we must be able to consider all possible samples of size 30 and base our analysis on how likely each individual result is. Return to the top. In mathematical statistics books (for courses that assume you have already taken a probability course) the part of the problem relating to the sampling is described as assumptions about random variables. Mathematical statistics texts almost always says to consider the Xs (or Ys) to be independent with a common distribution. How does this correspond to some description of how to sample from a population? Answer: simple random sampling with replacement. Return to the top. Types of Graphs - Line Graphs Comparing various sets of data can be complicated, but line graphs make it easy. The plotted peaks and dips on the grid allow you to monitor and compare improvement and decline. Scientists use line graphs all the time, as do all types of professionals and students. Learn more about line graphsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ the most popular type of graph. - Bar Graphs Pleasing to the eyes, bar graphs compare data in a simple format consisting of rectangular bars. With a few varieties to choose from, settling on the right bar graph might be confusing. Should you go with a horizontal, vertical, double or group bar graph? Read on to find out. - Pictographs You first encounter pictographs during childhood and bump into them all through lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ at school, work, and all over magazines and on TV. These diagrams, which use small picture symbols to compare information, are a media favorite; statisticians, though, do not share the sentiment. Find out why, and learn more about the uses of pictographs. - Pie Charts Simple to make and simple to understand, a pie chart is a popular form of data comparison, consisting of a circle that is split into parts. When should you use pie charts, and when should you not? Learn about their advantages and disadvantages, and get some tips on making pie charts. - Cosmographs A cosmograph is a type of chart that shows comparisons. In doing so, it makes life and work easier. If you want to prepare an input-output model for your organization, or compare the features of a geographical region through a simple visual, cosmographs come in handy. Find out how a cosmograph can help you. - Organizational Charts These diagrams represent the relationships between the different positions and ranks of a company through a series of boxes that go from top to bottom and side to side. Not only does anorganizational chart add order and structure to an organization, but it also shows if changes are needed. Get more information on organizational charts. - Flow Charts When projects seem overbearing and processes seem complex, flow charts can save the day by break things down into smaller steps and giving you a clearer idea of the overall process. Shapes are typically used to represent the components of a flow chart. Find out what these shapes represent and learn more about flow charts.

Increasing Airline Security Essay -- Papers

Increasing Airline Security Over the past five months, airline and airport security has been in the news almost daily. The events on and since September 11 have completely changed the viewpoints of many Americans, as well as the world, concerning airline security. Between the 18 suicide hijackers to Richard â€Å"the shoe bomber† Reid and the many other terrorists that lurk in the world, flying is definitely not as safe as it once was. I strongly believe that security in airports should be much more strict than it is now, even if it infringes on the people’s right to privacy. The last part of that statement is the point of clash for many people because they strongly believe in privacy rights. Before I get to why there should be stricter airport security, I will define a few the main terms in this debate. First of all, stricter security calls for a more systematic, more careful searching of passengers, bags and airplanes for contraband items, like guns, knifes, explosives and anything that could be used as a weapon. I will go into more detail later about different practices to give airports stricter security. Another crucial part of this debate that perplexes many people is the phrase, â€Å"right to privacy.† Rights to privacy can be defined as the right to be left alone without unwarranted intrusion by the government, the media or other institutions or individuals. Article IV of the Bill of Rights states that â€Å"the right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Airline security has always been a very important issue, but the significance has multiplied exponentially since the September 11th terrorist attacks. On that horrific day, ... ...ace for those airports that do not follow the correct procedure. Depending on the size of the airport, fines should be high enough to make a difference to the owners. For example, an airport in New York City should have a very hefty fine of at least $25,000 per infraction. Smaller airports cannot afford such amounts, so the fines should be tailored to their income. The funding for these new procedures and equipment has been allowed for in the President’s new budget for the fiscal year. Also, raising ticket prices only a few dollars each would help fund the new equipment. The fines from faulty airports could go into a fund to help pay for more equipment. Ultimately, I believe that these stricter changes would not only prevent events like those on September 11, but also they would deter would-be terrorists from even trying to breech the security at airports.

Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements

COMPARISON OF LOW COST SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES PROVIDED TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS Mthunzi Rubuluza (Fill your name in under â€Å"Prepare, Properties, Doc Properties, Advanced†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and update this field) Student Number 200732536 A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the BTech Degree in Civil Engineering† Cape Town 23 September 2011 Declaration I, Mthunzi Rubuluza declare that this research dissertation is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the BTech Degree at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town.It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. _______________________________________________ (Signature) Signed in Cape Town this _____________ day of ______________________ 2011 Abstract The influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation.The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams. The full range of technical options for providing adequate basic sanitation is still not widely known nor are the characteristics of the different options well understood. In particular, there is little appreciation of the long-term financial, environmental and institutional implications of operating and maintaining the various sanitation systems.As a result, in many cases communities and local governments are choosing technical options that, in the long term, are unaffordable and/or unsustainable. C hallenges arise from the wide range of options available and the differing environments and conditions to which each is suited. On-site sanitation is the main form of excreta disposal in most sub-Saharan African cities and will remain the most appropriate level of service for the urban poor in the medium term. Despite heavy public investment in sewerage systems in most primary and some secondary cities, typically only 10-15% of the urban population benefit from access to the sewer network.About 80% of the urban population depends on on-site facilities such as septic tanks and pit latrines which, unlike sewers, are usually the responsibility of households. Acknowledgements I would like to humbly acknowledge everybody who supported me with prayers and encouragement My supervisor, Mr. C. Muanda, thank you for your mentorship and guidance The group members for the support they gave me when hope was gone. My friends who opened up their house for me to become a study area My Family, thank you for your guidance and teachings My dear wife, I love you, thank you for being there for me, supporting me andMostly to my God, thank you Father for giving me strength every day Table of Contents Page Declarationii Abstractiii Acknowledgementsiv Table of Contentsv List of Figuresviii List of Tablesix List of Symbolsx Terms and conceptsxi Chapter 1Introduction1 1. 1Background and Motivation1 1. 2Research problem1 1. 3Research Question1 1. 4Objectives and outcomes2 1. 5Significance2 1. 6Delineation2 1. 7Assumptions2 1. 8Methodology2 1. 9Organisation of dissertation3 Chapter 2Literature review and theory4 2. 1Introduction4 2. 2Purpose of Sanitation Technologies4 2. 2. 1Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities4 . 3Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies6 2. 3. 1Low cost sanitation technology6 2. 3. 2Institutional technologies for sanitation6 2. 4Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 1Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 2Wet system7 2. 5Operatio nal Requirements8 2. 5. 1Dry system8 2. 6Implementation Challenges in South Africa8 2. 6. 1Implementation Challenges at Provincial level9 2. 6. 2Implementation Challenges at City level9 2. 6. 3Implementation challenges within community and household level9 2. 7Types of Sanitation Facilities10 2. 7. 1Improved sanitation facilities10 . 7. 2Unimproved sanitation facilities10 2. 7. 3Unimproved sanitation (bucket system)10 2. 7. 4Improved sanitation (Septic tank)10 2. 8On-site sanitation11 2. 9Off-site sanitation11 2. 10Sanitation Guidelines for End-user11 2. 11Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities12 2. 11. 1Implementation process during planning12 2. 12Sanitation Provision Policy12 2. 13Costs13 2. 13. 1Cost on various levels13 2. 14Conclusion13 2. 15References15 Chapter 3Research methodology16 3. 1Research design16 3. 2Research methodology16 3. 2. 1Data16 3. 2. 2Data Collection16 3. 2. 3Research Equipment17 . 3Methodology17 3. 3. 1Objective 1 – To investigate av ailable sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. 17 3. 3. 2Objective 218 3. 3. 3Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option18 3. 4Semi Structured Interviews19 Chapter 4Discussion20 4. 1Types of Sanitation Technologies20 4. 1. 1Dry toilets20 4. 1. 2MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)21 4. 1. 3Conservancy tank21 4. 1. 4VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit)22 4. 2On-site Sanitation22 4. 2. 1Pour flush slabs22 4. 2. 2Communal or shared technologies23 4. 2. 3Septic Tank24 4. 3Design24 4. Manufactures Cost25 4. 4. 1MobiSan toilets25 4. 4. 2Pre-cast toilets25 4. 5Photographs25 Figure 4. 1 Cluster of communal toilets26 4. 6STATS SA26 4. 6. 1Population census 200126 Chapter 5Discussion28 5. 1Sanitation Technology Options28 5. 2Operation and Maintenance29 5. 3Selection of an Appropriate Technology30 5. 3. 1Key issues raised for selection appropriate technology30 5. 4Sanitation Provision Approach31 5. 4. 1Supply driven sanitation31 5. 4. 2Demand driven sanitation31 5. 5Performance of these Sanitation Facilities31 There is not enough space due to the density of the settlements. 40 5. Guidelines and Policy42 5. 6. 1Strategy for Sanitation Services to Informal Settlements42 5. 6. 2Costing Guideline for Sanitation Facilities42 5. 7Basic Sanitation Policy Principles44 1. Sanitation must respond to the demands of communities and should link to improved hygiene awareness. For people to benefit from sanitation improvements, everybody must understand the link between their own health, good hygiene and toilet facilities. 44 2. Communities must be fully involved in projects. DWAF is only the regulator. Citizens have rights but also responsibilities in taking charge of their own health. 4 3. Sanitation must be provided in conjunction with water supply and other municipal services. 44 4. Sanitation is more than just toilets; it must be accompanied by environmental and health education. 44 5. Access to basic sanitation is a huma n right. 44 6. Local government has the constitutional responsibility to provide access to sanitation services. 44 7. Scarce public funds must be prioritised to help those most at risk. 44 8. Limited national funds should be fairly distributed throughout the country. 44 9. Water has an economic value and must be protected through sanitation. 44 10.Polluters must pay to clean up the water and the environment they have polluted. 44 11. Sanitation must be financially sustainable. 44 12. The environment must be protected when sanitation systems are set up and run. 44 5. 7. 1What will the Basic Household Policy Achieve? 44 CHAPTER 6 Recommendation and Conclusion45 References47 Appendices48 Appendix A. Questionnaire for users48 List of Figures Page Body Figure 2. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 2 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error!Bookmar k not defined. Figure 2. 3 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 4 Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style – these are Blue Hills –don’t put them or Blue Sky stuff in your dissertation. (Name, 2007)Error! 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Figure D. 1 Sample appendix figure caption49Figure D. 2 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure D. 3 Sample appendix figure caption49 List of Tables Page Body Table 4. 1Replace this text and table with your own – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change table numbering or caption styleError! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 2 Sample Table (note use of repeated header as table split across page – only split if it can’t be avoided) (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 3Replace this text and table with your own – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change table numbering or caption style (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined.Appendices Table A. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table A. 2 Another appendix table example48 Table A. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)48 Table A. 4 Another appendix table example48 Table B. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! 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Table C. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table C. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table C. 4 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 4 Another appendix table example49 List of Symbols Constants ab| Distance between mid-ch ord and elastic axis(mm)| | B| Airfoil half-chord(mm)| | C| Non-dimensional distance between airfoil mid-chord and flap hinge line(-)| | U| Free stream velocity(m/s)| | W| Flexure width(mm)| |X| Distance along span(mm)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between airfoil pitch axis and airfoil cg(-)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between flap hinge axis and flap cg(-)| | | | | Greek letters ?| Pitch angle (rad)| | ?| Flap angle (rad)| | | Commanded flap angle (rad)| | ?| Tensile stress (MPa)| | ?| Shear stress (MPa)| | ?| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Subscripts/superscripts A| Aerodynamic| | H| Related to plunge degree of freedom| | ?| Related to pitch degree of freedom| | ?| Related to flap degree of freedom| | S| Structural| | W| Wing| | T| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Terms and conceptsVIP| Ventilated Improvement Pit| UDS| Urine Diversion System| Eco San| Ecological Sanitation| MCSF| Mobile Community Sanitation Facility| MO| Municipal Officer| IS| Informal Settle ment| MobiSan| Mobile Sanitation| AB| Ablution Block| Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources.When improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system, sustainability criteria related to the following aspects should be considered, health, includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal. This literature review covers types of sanitation, characteristics of sanitation, sanitation provision policy, criteria for selection of sanitation, conclusion. Backgroun d and MotivationThe influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation. The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams.Informal settlements by their nature are quite densely populated and access through the settlement is quite hard. Basic services are larking due to the fact there are no structures that govern the raise of settlements and the need to deliver basic sanitation services increases. There is a huge need to analyse which technology functions within the limits experienced in informal settlements. Research problem The influx of migrants from rural area impoverished and densely populated areas in South Africa towards prosperous regions is creating immense pressures on the existing infrastructure.The conditions of life to informal settlements tend to be poor, with low mobility, and difficult access to health, education, recreation and sanitation. Informal settlements are created without planning and basic infrastructure. Due to the large number of sanitation technologies available and dynamic of these informal settlements, the choice of suitable and sustainable sanitation technology is of utmost importance. Currently, sanitation services provided are not accepted by settlers. Where it is supplied, it is vandalised or misused.This results in unnecessary pressure on decision makers to provide adequate sanitation and loss of investment. Research Question Which is the most practical low cost sanitation technology that can be provided for informal settlements in the We stern Cape? Objectives and outcomes The aim of this work is to investigate the existing sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements in the Western Cape. To investigate available sanitation technologies provided in informal settlement (Cape Flats) technology by outlying, (advantages & disadvantages) from operational, design, maintenance and cost perspective.To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics; (dry or wet sanitation; individual or communal). To select the most suitable sanitation options. Recommend the most suitable option. A questioner will be used to find view points of the community within informal settlements. Operational costs and Structural costs per unit Significance This study intends to provide a Better Understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. DelineationThis study will focus only on the sanitation facilities within informal settlements in the Western Cape. The research will compare sanitation facilities provided for highly serviced areas within the Western Cape and the design for formal settlements will be mentioned. Assumptions The expected results of the study are as follow: †¢An overview of sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements †¢Outline key criteria used for selecting the area for the technology †¢Provide a cost effective sanitation technology for informal settlements MethodologyThere will be three (3) informal settlements around the Western Cape that will be selected based on the type of sanitation provided. (Kuyasa, New Crossroad and Nyanga). Field visits will be conducted to look at each sanitation type provided for the people of that particular informal settlement. Visual assessment will used as a way of assessing the facilities at selected case study sites. The assessment will be done with the following: -Design -Operation -Maintenance operations & cost effec tiveness -Interview with a Water & Sanitation official -Views of usersOrganisation of dissertation Here you must describe briefly how the dissertation unfolds. Don’t just list the chapter headings – say a little about each one. Introduce the chapters in the order in which they appear and give an overview of the main points considered in each, except for your introduction (Chapter 1) of which this is the last section i. e. it is reasonable to assume this introduction has just been read. Simply state what is covered in each chapter and in what order, to reveal the logic and structure of the dissertation. Do not give any proofs, arguments or results here.Complete this section last to ensure it describes the dissertation accurately. Literature review and theory This chapter is about the comparison of low cost sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the natural resources and the environment.When improving an existing or designing a new sanitation system, sustainable aspects should be considered. Institutional appropriateness, sanitation technologies should be managed at the lowest appropriate level, such as municipalities. The household is a major factor in sustaining human health and the environment. Beneficiary communities from the provision of sanitation technologies, or from improvements to existing sanitation technologies, must be partners in the planning, implementation and, where appropriate, operation and maintenance of these technologies or improvements.Of course, sanitation planning cannot be done in a wholly decentralized way: there has to be a coherent city-wide approach to sanitation , but the planning process has to take into account the views of the intended beneficiaries and recognise that the sanitation solutions for very poor, poor and non-poor households are likely to be very different. Affordable sanitation technologies must be affordable for the households using them. In the Western Cape in particular consideration must be given to the affordability of sanitation technologies for poor and very poor households.Purpose of Sanitation Technologies Background The prime purpose of a sanitation system is to break the disease cycle caused by the bacteria in human excreta. To do so, the system has to combat exposure to infection through all the stages from the generation of excreta to their final disposal or reuse. It is important to emphasise again that human behaviour is crucial and fostering behavioural change is a key component of sanitation system planning. In this chapter, though, we are concerned with the functional elements of the system.While individual components will vary considerably with local circumstances and will differ from community to community, the division into elements creates flexibility and choice in developing appropriate solutions. Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities There are a few principles that lead to beneficial changes for the community and the city as a whole. Below are the six (6) principles for affective strategic planning: 1. Respond on sound finance Service provision should respond to what the potential user wants and willing to pay for. 2. Focus on sound financesIntended users’ willingness to pay for sanitation systems will not be possible for expansion for facilities required. 3. Develop incentives for good practice Individuals and organisations act in a way that ensures the on-going availability of functioning sanitation services need to be incentives for good practice. 4. Involve stakeholders in appropriate ways Groups, individuals and organisation with an interest in some particular subject, in this case sanitation become stakeholders. All stakeholders need to be involved in developing policy context for sanitation acting as intermediaries between service user and service providers. . Take a wide view of sanitation Stakeholders should look beyond local solutions to narrowly defined problems and recognise the links between different sanitation services. Excreta disposal, solid waste management and drainage are interrelated and the impact of improvements in one will be reduced if they are carried out without regard to the others. 6. Take management steps towards intermediate objectives This principle is derived from the incremental approach to the development and implementation of strategies identified, when considering steps of improving set objectives.ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIRDED FOR SANITATION PURPOSES Five elements which need to be considered separately are as follows: †¢ The toilet – there is a wide range of latrines, water closets, urine-diversion toilets, etc. , that may be considered, depending on local circumstances. †¢ The collection system – septic tanks, pits, vaults, drums, may be appropriate in different environments. †¢ Transportation – large or small sewer systems, motorised, mechanical or manual haulage may need to be considered. Treatment – systems vary from sophisticated wastewater treatment plants and sludge digestion to simple composting systems and soil filtration. †¢ Use of sanitation products – urine, composted excreta and biogas are all important resources. If all five (5) elements for sanitation are adhered too then, Health, which is one of the aspects which include the risk of exposure to hazardous substances and pathogens that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal.Aspects such as hygiene, nutrition and improvement of livelihood achieved by the ap plication of a certain sanitation system, as well as downstream effects needs to be prioritized. Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies The selection of appropriate sanitation technologies within informal settlements either locally (SA) or internationally, should be considered. . The physical environment and technical feasibility in which it can be installed (sanitation facility) for example; consideration has to be given for (altitude, ground slopes, soils, hydrogeology, housing density, liability to flooding and local climate.The selection must also be compatible both with local socio-cultural practices and preferences and with local socio-economic conditions, with the ability to pay for the sanitation arrangement selected and also willingness to pay for services rendered. Any selected low cost sanitation for any given community has to comply with the six (6) principles for sustainable sanitation. Low cost sanitation technology Sanitation is divided into two broad groups : on site and off site systems.The technologies are further divided into three (3) reuse categories: centralized reuse, intermittent reuse and decentralized reuse and these leads to different sets of sanitation solutions. Household or local community level is Decentralized reuse (a house block). Natural drainage basins within an urban area are Centralized reuse level (town, city), wastewater collection is required followed by wastewater treatment. Pit latrines, pour-flush toilets and septic tanks are all intermittent reuse which refers to on-site systems. Conventional sewerage is not covered as it is too expensive for informal settlements (IWA, 2004).Service delivery in a recent inventory indicates that most of the informal settlements are severely lagging behind in sanitation coverage. Government’s current approach is to aim to supply informal settlements with toilets to be shared within five (5) households. Most of the toilets are locked and their maintenance relies on the users. In the Western Cape especially in the Cape Flats area the types of toilets that are mostly used are chemical (Nyanga) and bucket system (New cross) as shared facilities while VIP and UDS are considered as individual facilities.The options mentioned are not always available or suitable for the informal settlements due to the nature of the settlements. These services are considered as emergency services but however remain with the communities for a long period of time (Mel’s et al, 2009). Institutional technologies for sanitation Institutional technologies for sanitation within South African government structures need to incorporate accountability. During the planning phase all sanitation technologies are prone to mismanagement (including sanitation selection).An assessment for the comparison of sanitation technology needs to include, who is responsible for what and the likelihood that these responsibilities can and will be effectively discharged over the appropriate tim eframes (short, medium and long term commitments). A non-prescriptive professional attitude and in depth local knowledge is required for assessment purposes (Mara et al, 2001). Comparison of the two arrangements is vital because they deal with people and government entities on how to handle sanitation. The CoCT plays a critical role in identifying the need for sanitation in each community. Mobile Communal Sanitation FacilitiesDue to the ever increasing need for free land and lack of space in our urban areas, alternative technologies in order to meet the sanitation demand and respond to the communities need to be made available. Temporary sanitation facilities such as the Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) have been introduced recently in areas where sanitation is to take place (Muanda, 2010). Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) varies in terms of their design, operational and use requirements. MCSF can be classified accor ding to their operational requirements.In practice the common types that are found are either dry (not requiring water) and wet (requiring water). A system that uses both scenarios has been identified as an improvement solution dealing with various situations. Wet system This type of system requires water for its operation. There are several types of such systems that are being used throughout the world and in Africa such as the DMT (dignified mobile toilet). There are solar powered toilets, sewer connected mobile toilet. Mostly in South Africa the most commonly used system is the Kayaloo and Mobisan (Parkison et al, 2008). Dry systemThis type of sanitation system does not require water for its operation. There are a few in South Africa such as the Mobile Pit toilet. In the international arena the following system for dry systems technologies include the wheel toilet (Burkina Faso), composting mobile toilet (France), tricycle toilet (India and Sri Lanka) {Pickford, 1995}. Combined s ystem This type of system is a dual system that can be used as dry or wet sanitation; it can operate without the availability of water or sewer. In the international arena, the NMT (Nepal Mobile Toilet) is the commonly used system under this category (Parkison et al, 2008).South African perception of MCSF The perception of users of mobile sanitation facilities are context based. The most preferred type of sanitation in South Africa is the individual full waterborne flush toilet. Communities within informal settlements are demanding that this type of sanitation should be provided to them at any cost regardless of the type of topography, shelter or the status of the land occupied. MCSF are seen by communities that the level of service is closer to that off the full flush toilet despite the communal status of the facility and communities are comfortable using it.Communities believe that this type of sanitation provides dignity and privacy compared to other types of sanitation in the ar eas. The slow pace of delivery and the long waiting for the provision of the individual sanitation has changed people’s perception recently. Most of the communities feel that the type of technology brought for a temporary basis has turned up to be a permanent solution (Grootboom, 2010). Operational Requirements City of Cape Town (CoCT) for example most of the settlements (75%) are located on land that is owned by the municipality and a large share which is (22%) is located in private lands.Consent from the owner has to be obtained by the Water Services Department in order to deliver services on site. Permission by many owners is not given due the fact that communities will make their temporally settlement a permanent one. A major constraint for sanitation service provision is the high density of settlements. Dry system The operation of this system does not require water for its operation and this is how the dry system is defined. Dry mobile sanitation system requires a locati on where the facility needs to be installed and the disposal point or discharging excreta when the box is full at the bottom of the system for cleaning purposes (Scandura & Sobsey,1997). 2. 5. 2 Wet system The wet system for mobile sanitation requires water and sewer in order to make the system operational. A toilet bowl is connected under this sanitation system using a pipe linking to the sewer or septic tank. The system depends on water and cannot function if water is not available. In cases where there is no sewer line, the wastewater is pumped out and taken to a disposal site (Dorrigton, 2000). 2. 5. Combined system The combined system was designed to overcome the unavailability of water and the effects that can happen to the operation of such a system. It combines both systems and can be operated without water and with water (Parkison et al, 2008). Implementation Challenges in South Africa Communities in needy areas are waiting for the implementation of sanitation technology th at will provide dignified sanitation to them. The success for the implementation should be designed in such that all the parameters of the technology are not compromised.In the past the focus was mainly on the technology of the sanitation facility, and recently the attention has shifted to the implementation methods of sanitation technologies. Implementation means the process of introduction of sanitation in communities, not necessary the design, but the development process of sanitation. Introduction of the strategy and approach towards the community is vita (Classen, 2003). Professionals in this field feel that the implementation plan should have the environment as the first priority, then after the technical aspects to meet he human societal needs, and finally the economic requirements with these communities. It has become clear from, human societal needs are important and technology must help achieve this basic needs (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at Provincial lev el The role of the provincial government needs to be clarified in the funding of urban infrastructure investments and the planning and the delivery of sanitation services is of utmost importance. A key challenge is the lack of capacity for sanitation promotion and progress monitoring.Evasion of funds that are exclusively allocated to sanitation is affecting service provision (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at City level Key challenges at municipal levels are related to the following issues: The lack of mechanisms bearing in mind the range of organizations that have a stake in sanitation for inter-agency collaboration on planning and service delivery. Not all municipalities at present accept that there is a problem with excreta disposal. For the achievements of national sanitation goals there is a lack of incentives and accountability.There is a shortage of capacity within the municipality in infrastructure development, planning, service delivery and sanitation promotion . Poorly understood and complicated mechanisms for accessing and allocating capital funds. The private sectors service delivery and maintenance in the safe removal, treatment and disposal of septic tank is under-developed and unregulated. Existing infrastructure is poorly maintained and operated (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation challenges within the community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities.The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003). For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered b y government institutions.CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitation stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Implementation challenges within community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities. The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003).For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered by government institutions. CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitati on stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Types of Sanitation Facilities The type of sanitation facilities listed below can be found throughout the Western Cape.The type of technology used for a particular settlement depends on the following elements which determine the final product being utilised i. e. topography, population, water resource and availability of the facility. Improved sanitation facilities This are facilities which are not shared or public, for example; flush or pour flush, piped system, pit latrine, septic tank, ventilated improved pit latrine with slab and compositing toilet (Franceys et. al 1992). Unimproved sanitation facilitiesExcreta is flushed to the street, yard or plot, open sewer, a ditch, a drainage way or other location pit latrine without slab or open pit, bucket, hanging toilet or hanging latrine and no facilities or bush or field (Lemer, 1996). Unimproved sanitation (bucket system) Design and function In the South African context the bucket is always black, pvc and is about 38 cm in diameter at the top and 30 cm at the bottom and has adequate handles for lifting and carrying. The collection chamber is situated below the squatting seat.All the chambers are open at the rear of the latrine, into the service lane used for collection. The collection chamber must be fly and animal proof. The chamber needs to be ventilated by means of a pipe vent carried to roof level of the superstructure (Pickford, 1995). Collection and conveyance of buckets On a weekly basis collection are done and gets replaced with a disinfected bucket. Buckets that are emptied into a tank and are returned immediately the practice should be condemned unreservedly.The time of the collection should be done in partnership with the community affected. Buckets are emptied at the disposal sites, thoroughly washed, and disinfected with phenol or creosol type of disinfectant before being stores away and re-used (Pickford, 1995). Improved sanitation (Septic tank) Th e most satisfactory unit all water-carried systems and the most useful system of disposal of excreta and other liquid wastes from individual dwellings, small groups of houses, or institutions located in informal settlements out of reach of sewer systems.The septic tank consists of a covered settling tank into which the raw sewage is led by the building sewer. Inside the septic tank the processes constitute the primary treatment of raw sewage; and those which occur in the disposal field form the secondary treatment. All liquids wastes, including those from bathrooms and kitchens, may be sent to the septic tank without endangering its normal operation. Contrary to popular belief, recent research has shown that sullage waste can and should be discharged into septic tanks (Lemer, 1996).On-site sanitation As it was mentioned before that there are two types of sanitation systems in this instance the On-site sanitation systems is generally designed and must operate in such a way excreta is deposited into a man-made container, usually a subsurface excavation or tank. The common trend to all forms of on-site sanitation is that decomposition process and settlement is performed on-site. This is the most low-cost sanitation system as it has various types of pit latrines. They can be either wet or dry systems.Due to the shortage of space and availability of land in informal settlements this system operates the best under these conditions (Lemer, 1996). Off-site sanitation This type of sanitation system transports sewage through sewer pipes using water. An off-site sanitation system only transport faecal matter away from households and does not include on-site decomposition to a significant degree. This type of system depends largely on the topography of the area and the planning around the system. There must be enough land and space before such a system is created, which is difficult in informal settlements.The cost of such a system is quite high (Scandura and Sobsey, 1997 ). The availability of funds and the topography play an important role in the decision making on what type of technology communities should have within informal settlements. Sanitation Guidelines for End-user Greater user acceptance is achieved through user involvement and influence in selection, implementation and management including operation of the technology is borne out of understanding and experience that people best understand their own development situation, social, cultural and religious practices.If the communities are involved it leads to greater ownership and empowerment and would translate into greater acceptance of responsibility and hence the technology. It is within the human nature to be more receptive and supportive when asked about one’s opinion as opposed to being dictated or told to what’s is best for oneself (Mara, 1996). Note the following reasons why services fail: †¢Ineffective planning, monitoring, evaluation and interventions †¢Poo r technical capacity to implement †¢Hygiene and inappropriate use practises. †¢Low user acceptance and satisfaction †¢Inadequate community involvement Low priority and †¢Lack of responsibilities between municipal, community and household Finally- it is of great importance not to move too fast from temporary programmes to full-scale programmes, the community need to receive the programme so that it is not rejected. Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities Sanitation technology is adequately dependent on the appropriate design specification is borne out of the understanding that the correct design standards and locally appropriate materials would enhance the durability of the technology in a given local context.Planning plays a pivotal role as it is used as an important factor to determine whether appropriate and sustainable sanitation technologies are achieved. A planning model that integrates everyone is ideal (WSP, 2007) that takes place within th e Integrated Development Planning (IDP) process (DWAF, 2001). The various sanitation options are demonstrated through the IDP process. A top-down to bottom-up approach for a planning model should drive the demand and should be entirely people centred, best achieved through a collective model (Tilley, 2008). Implementation process during planningA methodology for the provision of sanitation is necessary to establish sanitation for low-income settlements and to support and equip personal responsible for provision of sanitation to low-income settlements (Muanda, 2010). In the planning process specific emphasis for adequate functioning of the technology is placed on the environmental aspect, that local environmental and geological condition are considered and that the technology does not adversely impact on the environment (DWAF, undated). The recurring points that need to be systemised are as follows; Human rights and socio-cultural needs should be considered †¢Affordability for t he user †¢Sanitation should be demand driven †¢Stakeholder participation †¢Support, regulation and implementation within the community participation framework should be considered. †¢Provision for construction should be to locals. †¢Community linkage at all levels During the implementation place it is important to include health and hygiene training as to ensure improved health and hygiene practice (Still et. al, 2009). What happens in the case where a local authority has provided such training?Over time many new comers arrive into the settlement (as is the case in many informal settlements)? The only solution to the question here is to train trainers in the community who will be responsible for constantly creating awareness in their community (DWAF, 2009). Sanitation Provision Policy South Africa despite being a democratic country for more than a decade, with a sound constitution and sound policies there is still high levels of poverty and inequalities and budgetary realignments designed to address the legacies of the past and steady economic growth (DWAF, undated).Some policies have been relatively successful but still South Africa has the second highest in equality in the world behind Brazil (UNICEF, 2000). The fact is that by 1996 not that much had been achieved by way of sanitation provision in any of the provinces (DBSA, 2009). Sanitation has become a high priority on the development agenda, and not just with the Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) sector specialist. The opportunities for financial support are better than ever, the political commitment is there, so as to deliver sustainable sanitation services to more than two billion people by 2015.A further 1,089 million rural and 1,085 million urban dwellers will need to gain access in the coming 15 years if the 2015 target is to be achieved. The first democratic government since 1994 has put in place policies that address the apartheid health legacy of racial discrimination. Du ring this process, several key-pro equity policies were inherited in the public sector. In the South African context the policy not only influences the approach to the financing and management of projects but also their technical features (WHO, 1999). CostsSocio-cultural landscapes and local variations in the physical landscape necessitate local input into the selection process and any preconceived ideas should be put on hold. Discussions with the targeted community about local capital and operation and maintenance costs have to be determined in each case that will enable the community and local authorities to come to a decision based on affordability. It is important that agencies reporting comparative costs on a wholly transparent basis, so that only the â€Å"true† basic costs of sanitation arrangement are presented to the communities (DBSA, 2009).Cost on various levels There are five (5) principles for various levels. †¢All costs relating to the provision of sanitati on service should be included †¢A distinction should be made between capital and operating costs †¢A clear distinction has to be made between internal and bulk services †¢Costs services must be expressed as current replacement at capacity cost. †¢Costs to be reduced per area or site. Cost sanitation technologies can also be influenced through the natural features such as vegetation, terrain and water availability and climatic conditions generally within the settlements.Conclusion The sanitation approach includes the perception, feel and practices involved in satisfying the primal need to defecate and urinate. Societal sanitation approach determines the nature of sanitation which serves as the crucial link between an unhealthy and healthy living environment. The term sanitation includes the safe disposal of domestic waste. For the purposes of this research, the structure seeks to understand the appropriate sanitation and identify a sanitation structure that is cos t effective and will be sustainable in informal settlements.Sanitation facilities are used to improve human dignity regardless of the area and the circumstances of the people. In this study we have looked at the process that needs to be followed in order to have sanitation technologies that safe guard the people. In informal settlements due to the nature of their existence and the lack of formal services, the communities usually do not take ownership of these facilities. The onus is upon government to train people about the importance of sanitation. The study focussed mostly on technologies that are used internationally and locally.The comparison of this technologies will be based on cost, structural intact and the maintenance therefore of the technology. References Rockstrom, Johan et al. : Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation, Stockholm Environmental Institute, 2005. WHO & UNICEF: Meeting the MDG Dri nking Water and Sanitation Target – The urban and rural challenge. WSSCC/Sandec (2000). The Bellagio Statement on Sustainable Sanitation. Jenssen et al. , 2004 P. D. Jenssen, J. Heeb, E. Huba-Mang, K. Gnanakan, S. W. Warner, K. Refsgaard, Stenstorm Thor-Axel, B.Guterstam and K. W. Alsen, Ecological sanitation and reuse of wastewater, ecosan, a thinkpiece on ecological sanitation (2004). HDR (Human Development Report), 2006 HDR (Human Development Report), Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, United Nations Development Programme, New York (2006). Dorrington RE, Bradshaw D, Budlender D. HIV/AIDS Profile of the Provinces of South Africa—Indicators for 2002. Cape Town, South Africa: Centre for Actuarial Research, Medical Research Council and the Actuarial Society of South Africa, University of Cape Town; 2002. Rogerson, C. (1993); South African policy lessons.Urban Forum Vol. 4; No. 2. Housing Conditions, sanitation status and associated health risks in selected subsidized low- cost housing settlements in Cape Town, South Africa. Govender, T. Jo M. Barnes. Joubert A, Stewart T (2003). Evaluation of water supply augmentation and water demand management options for the City of Cape Town, journal of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. Lemanski, C (2009). Augmented informality; South Africans backyard dwellings as a by-product of formal housing policies. WHO, (2006). Surveillance, planning, financing. Available online. City of Cape Town, Department of housing, (2004).Breaking new ground, comprehensive plan for housing delivery. Available online. Research methodology This chapter provides a comprehensive description of the comparison methods used to analyse sanitation technologies in informal settlements (IS). It outlines an overview of the research design, data collection, research equipment and research methodology used in order to meet the study objectives. Research design This section of the study is made up of the following: * Li terature review which compromises of literature, a body review, a framework, a body of knowledge with regards to sanitation technologies. Data collection which compromise methods used to collect required data * Data Analysis and Presentation in the light of the literature review to determine the trends used for sanitation technologies for IS. Research methodology This study intends to provide a better understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. Data The data required in order to archive the study objectives includes the type of sanitation technology for IS and the cost in relation to sanitation technology.Data acquired was based on the following: †¢Type of sanitation †¢Cost (Operational & Maintenance) †¢Cost (Infrastructure) †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of On-site sanitation †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-site sanitation Data Collection In order t o collect data two methods are used (Two interviews & Site visits). * Site visits on selected IS in order to assess the type of sanitation technology being used. The site visits where done by conducting visual assessment in three informal settlements with the Metro. Data was collected by comparing the types of technology that is being used within each settlement.A questionnaire template was used to gather user’s views and opinions on the technologies offered by the municipality. * An interview with the Municipal Officer (MO) to confirm or validate data/technology on site and the cost of the technology. The interview was set out to ascertain the magnitude and the need of sanitation facilities within informal settlements which is done by the municipality. Operational and maintenance cost of the technology being used was collected for comparison purposes. * An interview with manufactures of sanitation technologies was conducted in order to confirm cost per unit.All the manufactu res that where contacted where primary manufactures that the municipality procures all their sanitation technologies. Rocla was one of the manufactures that was interviewed about their precast toilets. Rocla has two sets of precast toilets one with sanitation facilities and one without sanitation facilities. A comparison of the two technologies has been tabled in Chapter 4. Santec was also interviewed about their Mobile toilets which comprised two sets of toilets (dry & wet). A comparison of the two technologies is outlined in Chapter 4.Research Equipment The following equipment was used for this study: * Pen; this tool was used to capture raw data from site. * Laptop; ; the laptop is used to store all data collected and is also used to make tables to present all the research work into a document * Digital Camera; the digital camera was used to take pictures on site and during interviews. * Mobile phone; mobile phones where used as a means of communication amongst all stakeholders i nvolved. * Fax Machine; was used to send and also receive data from stakeholders without email facilities and scans. Landline; the tool was used for communication between office hours and is the most affordable means of communication. Methodology Objective 1 – To investigate available sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. The objective was implemented by conducting of site visits, during which visual assessments where used to compile the name of the technology, specific technical aspects such as design and the condition of the technologies on site. Below is a list of design technologies within informal settlements that where visited. * Porta potiies * Chemical toilets Container toilets * Conservancy tanks * Pour flush toilets * Pit latrines * Urine diversion toilets * MobiSan toilets * Environmental loo Objective 2 * To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics (dry or wet sanitation; in dividual or communal). Classification of the technology was done by identifying individual and communal sanitation technologies. * * Dry sanitation | * Wet sanitation| * A dry toilet differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system.Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling. | * These are the conventional full flush system with sewers and waste water treatment plants, full flush systems with septic tank and small bore sewers, and the full flush systems with shallow sewerage. With septic tanks will significantly reduce operating costs, while the third system shallow sewers will significantly reduce the capital costs.The advantages of this grou p of toilets are that they operate as full flush toilets, can accommodate grey water disposal, and are well suited to densely populated areas where the plot sizes are insufficient to treat and drain household wastes. | * Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option The suitable option was based on the advantages and disadvantages on the interview and the cost of the technology by the manufacture. The selected option is also based on the manufacture’s specification which used on site by the municipality and the budget allocated to the MO for that particular region.Advantages of On-site sanitation| Disadvantages of On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Semi Structured InterviewsSemi structured interviews were conducted to collect data from users to obtain the users views on sanitation technologies and the type of service the municipality is rendering. Users were asked questions on sanitation situations, technology selection, performance of facilities, appropriateness of the technologies, operational and maintenance of the facilities. A total of twelve (12) interviews were conducted. See (Appendix A) for the questionnaire template. Table 1 shows the distribution of the interviews conducted. Area| No. of interviews| Gugulethu| 4| Khayelitsha| 4| Nyanga| 4|TOTAL| 12| Table 1Distribution of interviews The questionnaires were administered on site with the users of the selected informal settlements. Administration of questionnaires was conducted in Xhosa since most of the users were comfortable speaking the language. D ue to the lack of finding suitable donor’s to fund our survey only small sample was administered that actually uses the facilities. Discussion This section of study reflects the visual assessment that was conducted on site. A questioner was used to ascertain the level of service from the end user on the three (3) identified sites.A comparison of technologies that is being offered in informal settlements by the municipality is also reflected. The physical structure of the technologies being offered by manufactures to municipalities. Operational and maintenance cost implication from the manufacture and that cost is later transferred or felt by the municipality. Types of Sanitation Technologies Technology| Settlement Name| Suburb Name| Porta potiies| KTC| Nyanga| Chemical toilets| KTC| Nyanga| Conservancy toilets| Monwabisi Park| Khayelitsha| Pour flush toilets| Barcelona| Gugulethu|Pit Latrines| Monwabisi Park | Khayelitsha| MobiSan toilets. | KTC| Nyanga| Dry toilets A dry toi let differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system. Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling.ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| No water required for flushing| Capital: R2000 – R 3500. 00 which can increase where soils not suited to drainage. | The toilet has to be cleaned without using much water. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R150 – R300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| May be used indoors| | Excreta have to be removed frequently to avoid smells, especially if the toilets are indoors| MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)Mobi San (Mobile Sanitation) system in many ways has many advantages over existing dry systems. Below is a list of those advantages; MobiSan Advantages| MobiSan Disadvantages| The MobiSan system is an independent and self-contained system and has been proven that the system does not affect ground water at all. Faeces and urine are stored separately in the MobiSan. Urine is channelled away and the faeces fall into a ventilated chamber. The construction of the system is such that a handle on the outside of the cabin allows the solid waste to be stirred.The steering speeds up the drying of the excrement. The excrement is then channelled into a second component where this drying process is repeated again. The end product is dried up, it is pathogen-free manure that can be safely used to fertilise local vegetable gardens within the communities in informal settlements. This system lends itself as a more aesthetic and hygienic option for residents in informal settlements. | The technology provi ded is prone to vandalism and becomes full within a short period. Operating costs are very high. | Conservancy tank ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES|Waste is flushed into the tank where it is contained in isolation from the surrounding environment. | Capital: R2000 – R 5000. 00 depending on top structure and tank volume| Becomes full if domestic wastewater levels are high. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R 550. 00 per household and emptying cost estimated at R181 per tank. The tank is emptied on average 3 times per year| Emptying cost over the lifespan of the technology is quite high. | VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| Applicable in rock terrain| Capital: R2500 – R 4500. 0Depending on householder input. | . Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| Does not require deep excavation| Operating: R35 – R135 every 2 years. | Prone to smells. | On-site Sanitation On-site sanitation has c ertain requirements, which need to be investigated before adopting the system. †¢The system must have adequate space for locating toilets and leach pits. †¢The designated site must have porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta and †¢The groundwater depth should be greater than 1,5m from ground level.ADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| DISADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Pour flush slabs Pour flush slabs (squatting pans) are designed with a U-shaped facility which s partly filled with water under slab. The de sign which is U overcomes problems such as flies, mosquitoes’ and odour by serving as a water seal. After usage, excreta are manually flushed by pouring water into the pan with a scoop. The amount is about 1 to 4 litres of water which is required for each flush. The amount of water depends mainly on the design of the facility and the U-trap. This type of toilet can be made from plastic and ceramic, or from galvanized sheet metal . ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| High level of convenience for the user| Capital: R 2000- R 3500 which can increase where soils are not well suited to drainage. Blockages occur a lot within these systems| The design reduces the need to handle fresh excreta. | Operating: R 150 – R 300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Requires small amounts of water for flushing| Can be used indoors| | Limited emptying service. | Communal or shared technologies In areas where there is not enough space, the sharing of latrines between several famil ies is a useful solution. The common situation is where groups of households or small communal areas have latrines to be used by all the families.The ownership of the latrines generally belongs to one of the houses, the owner of all the houses, or else ownership is shared between the households. The costs of pit emptying and other repairs is often included in the rent, causing problems when the owner does not live there, or the residents must collaborate to clean the latrine and collect money to get it emptied when necessary. This is a very widespread practice. Communal of blocks of latrines are located in a public area,

African American Theatre 2 Essay

African American Theater started out, hundreds of years ago, as a foundation of amusement for the black community. The theater was a place where African Americans, equally men and women, could work, study, and perfect their expertise. The beginning of African American theater set in motion back in the 1830’s, and it eventually became one of America’s most prevalent sources of entertainment Over the course of over one and a half decades, there has been an apparent transformation within the dominion of African American theater. For example, African Americans have prevailed over the intense burden of subjugation in forms such as political affairs, comfortable residency and most significantly, equal human rights. One of the most apparent leisure pursuits that were in remission from African-Americans came in the appearance of the performing arts, more particularly film. During this time, the society in general would not permit, for example, blacks to drink from the same water fountain, so to share the same onstage experiences or television effects was, without a doubt, not even simply prohibited but unheard of. However, as time went by, the potency of the hopeful African American actors and actresses weighed down the greater part of the general society, and society ceased being able to keep African Americans from appearing on stage and on television. For the longest time, the stage became and stayed the only way for African Americans to communicate the deep sorrow and oppression that the society, particularly the white population, had placed in front of them. Through acting, in addition to both singing and dancing, African Americans were able to, mentally and spiritually, go to a place that no tormenter could find them. With this new form of communication, African Americans found a new method of endurance, and acting was the fundamental technique. Even though the African American actors and actresses were forced to take the road of continued existence in the theater to gain self contentment, it was, as an understatement, not unproblematic. For the longest moments in time, African American actors and actresses were not permitted to step foot on stage. However, black actors were instead ridiculed by Caucasian actors in what they called â€Å"black face. † Black face was a performance where white actors and actresses would literally conceal their faces with black paint and makeup, so as to imitate an African American actor. From this falsification of the hopeful actors, derogatory names such as Tom, Mulatto, Mammy, Coon, and Buck resulted. Similar to Black Face, there was what is called Minstrel Shows. Minstrel shows, which consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, ridiculed and made fun of African Americans in the most disapproving ways. According to these shows, black people were looked upon as ignorant, lazy, and unreasonable, but also cheerful and melodious. Broadway, which is the heart of theater for Americans, had been closed to blacks for more than a decade. However, this was only until the African American musical â€Å"Shuffle Along† turned out to be a runaway success, which some historians believe was the beginning of the Harlem Renaissance. The first African American play to be produced on Broadway was â€Å"The Chip Woman’s Fortune† in 1923, written by Willis Richardson. In the year of 1959, Lorraine Hansberry, a famous playwright, became the first African American woman to have her play produced and performed on Broadway. Hansberry’s play, titled â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun,† became an outlet for a continual assembly of plays by African American playwrights who often brought their own individual occurrences in the great effort in opposition to racial discrimination to the theater plays that they produced. . By the revolving of this period, the minstrel show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity, having been replaced for the most part by vaudeville. It survived as professional entertainment until about 1910; amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools, fraternities, and local theaters. As blacks began to score legal and social victories against racism and to successfully assert political power, minstrelsy lost popularity. The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play. Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated. Spirituals (known as jubilees) entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy. Blackface minstrelsy was the first distinctly American theatrical form. In the 1830s and 1840s, it was at the core of the rise of an American music industry, and for several decades it provided the lens through which white America saw black America. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects; on the other, it afforded white Americans a singular and broad awareness of significant aspects of African American culture.

Steinbeck Essays (951 words) - Dust Bowl, John Steinbeck, Okie

Steinbeck Essays (951 words) - Dust Bowl, John Steinbeck, Okie Steinbeck John Steinbeck A Common Mans Man I never wrote two books alike, once said John Steinbeck (Shaw, 10). That may be true, but I think that he wrote many of his novels and short stories based on many of the same views. He often focused on social problems, like the haves verses the have nots, and made the reader want to encourage the underdog. Steinbecks back ground and concern for the common man made him one of the best writers for human rights. John Steinbeck was born in Salians, California and spent most of his life there or around Salians, because of that he often modeled his stories and the characters around the land he loved and the experiences he encountered. He lived in Salians until 1919, when he left for Stanford University, he only enrolled in the courses that pleased him - literature, creative writing and majoring in Marine Biology. He left in 1925, without a degree. Even though he didnt graduate his books showed the results of his five years spent there. His books display a considerable reading of the Greek and Roman historians, and the medieval and Renaissance fabalists and the biological sciences (Shaw 11). He then moved to New York and tried his hand as a construction worker and as a reporter for the American. (Covici , xxxv). Steinbeck then moved back to California and lived with his wife at Pacific Grove. In 1934, he wrote for the San Franciso News, he was assigned to write several articles about the 3,000 m igrants flooded in at Kings County. The plight of the migrant workers motivated him to help and document their struggle. The money he earned from the newspaper allowed him to travel to their home and see why their reason for leaving and traveled to California with them, sharing in with their hardships (Steinbeck, 127). Because John Steinbeck was able to travel with the Okies, he was able to accurately portray them and their struggles. Each book that he wrote had settings in the places where he has either lived or wanted to live. He presented the land as it was. The characters in his stories experienced floods, drought, and other natural disasters, while in the Salians Valley (Shaw, 5). What Steinbeck wrote was very factual and in depth. He exhibited his awareness of man and his surroundings, in his early books, before people ate, a pig had to be slaughtered, and often that and before they ate, it had to be cooked. Also when a car broke down, the characters had to find parts, and fix ed it themselves (Shaw, 13). Many people consider that John Steinbeck novels are records of social history. His books are the history of plain people and society as a whole, many of his books focused on the Great Depression, Social Prejudice, religion, and the automobile (Rundell, 4). He may be considered as a Sentimentalist, because of his concerns for the common man, human values, for warmth and love and understanding. The social relevance of his writings reveals him as a reformer (Covici, xxii). In his novel The Pastures of Heaven, Steinbeck brings up the issues of Japanese Americans fitting into social groups, and in East of Eden, he examines the problems of intelligent and educated Chinese-Americans in the California setting. John Steinbeck only once seriously considers the problems of Negroes in Society. Crooks, the stable boy in Of Mice and Men, was an outcast and never destine to fit into the generally white society of ranching. Not only did Steinbeck recognize the -problems of minorities and racial prejudice, he also mentioned class prejudice. The difference between the haves verses the have nots was brought up in the novel, The Grapes of Wrath, usually the people who had any financial stability hated the Okies, who had none. Owners hated the Okies because they were soft and the Okies were strong, also the store keepers hated them because the Okies had no money to spend in their stores (Bowden, 12). The Grapes of Wrath presents these issues in the form of an epic and sums up the despair of the early 1930s. The Joads experience: love, brotherhood, integrity, class fear, power, violence, and

Haplology - Definition and Examples in Language

Haplology s in Language Definition A sound change involving the loss of a syllable when its next to a phonetically identical (or similar) syllable. Haplology is a type of dissimilation. Perhaps the best-known example is the reduction of Anglaland in Old English to England in Modern English. The reverse process is known as dittologythe accidental or conventionalized repetition of a syllable. (Dittology also means, more broadly, the double reading or interpretation of any text.) The counterpart of haplology in writing is haplographythe accidental omission of a letter that should be repeated (such as mispell for misspell). The term haplology (from the Greek, simple, single) was coined by American linguist Maurice Bloomfield (American Journal of Philology, 1896). Also Known  As   syllabic syncope Examples and Observations Haplology . . . is the name given to the change in which a repeated sequence of sounds is simplified to a single occurrence. For example, if the word haplology were to undergo haplology (were to be haplologized), it would reduce the sequence lolo to lo, haplology haplogy. Some real examples are:(1) Some varieties of English reduce library to libry [laibri] and probably to probly [prÉ”bli].(2) pacifism pacificism (contrast with mysticism mysticism, where the repeated sequence is not reduced and does not end up as ​mystism).(3) English humbly was humblely in Chaucers time, pronounced with three syllables, but has been reduced to two syllables (only one l) in modern standard English.(Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed. MIT Press, 2004)The words library and necessary, especially as spoken in Southern England, are often heard by foreigners as libry and nessary. But when they repeat the words as such, they do not sound right, since there should be a lengthened r and s, respectively, in those words. It shows that foreigners notice the beginning stages of haplology in those words, when there is as yet no complete haplology.(Yuen Ren Chao, Language and Symbolic Systems. Cambridge University Press, 1968) I have often noted that Americans, in speaking of the familiar Worcestershire sauce, commonly pronounce every syllable and enunciate shire distinctly. In England it is always Woostershr.(H.L. Mencken, The American Language, 2nd ed. Alfred A. Knopf, 1921) Also See What Is the Correct Pronunciation of February?AssimilationDissimilationElision